Exploring the world around us requires us to use our five senses, but what if one of those senses was made impossible to use?  Most of us could never imagine living life without our hands, arms, legs, or feet, but this is a reality for so many around the globe.  Prosthetics are a means for those people to improve their quality of life, but what goes into these devices and what implications (both positive and negative) do they pose for users?  Check out this week's article about prosthetics!

Exploring the world around us requires us to use our five senses, but what if one of those senses was made impossible to use?  Most of us could never imagine living life without our hands, arms, legs, or feet, but this is a reality for so many around the globe.  Prosthetics are a means for those people to improve their quality of life, but what goes into these devices and what implications (both positive and negative) do they pose for users?  Let’s take a deeper dive into the world of prosthetic devices.

The first thing to understand is that prosthetic devices themselves are actually called prostheses.  A prosthesis is a manufactured device that is used to accomplish one of two things: either to replace a missing part of the body, or to make a certain part of the body function better.  The reasons for needing a prosthesis are manifold, from missing a limb at birth to requiring amputation as a result of injury or conditions like diabetes or certain cancers.  Some common examples of prosthetic devices include dentures and artificial limbs like the one in the picture above!

There are a few main types of commonly used prosthetic devices.  Prostheses usually fall under one of three categories: body-powered, motor-powered, and myoelectric-powered.

Body-powered prosthetics are controlled by the movement of the limbs.  Oftentimes, a cable connecting the shoulder to a prosthetic hand will activate the prosthesis upon movement.

Motor-powered prosthetics are usually activated by buttons or switches that allow the prosthesis to move and hold onto objects like a human hand would.

Myoelectric-powered prosthetics are a bit different from the other two types and show just how far science has advanced over the years.  The activation occurs through electrodes that are placed on the human skin and send electrical signals to the prosthesis based on muscle movements.  This has made movement much more convenient for many as the combined implementation of human and electric processes allows for a much more holistically effective product.

Modern-day advancements have also led to numerous breakthroughs in bionic prosthetics, similar to what you’d see in the popular Disney XD show Lab Rats.  Previous prostheses, although functional, have not been incredibly convenient for users and have still posed various limitations when it comes to movement and dexterity.  However, up and coming bionic prosthetics built with more complex sensors and processors have much more scope for responding to human impulses and allow for users to be much more precise with their movements. 

 Movement is an essential part of being human, and prosthetic limbs make that movement possible for millions around the globe.  The concept behind these prostheses seems incredibly complex but is actually quite simple at its core: to create something to better human life, it’s essential that you put yourself in the shoes of that human and experience the meaning of movement yourself.  Science has come a long way over time, and prosthetic devices show much promise for generations to come.

Here is a great video about the future of prosthetics and real life stories if you want to learn more! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GgTwa3CPrIE

https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/prostheses 

https://www.freedomprosthetics.com/how-do-prosthetic-limbs-work/ 

https://newsinhealth.nih.gov/2018/08/bionic-movements 

https://media.npr.org/assets/img/2014/10/23/eprosthetic-edit_wide-abb057b906b5eb98857f0054a3c284075c09faee.jpg 

Check out this week's article on RNA sequence analysis!

Most of us have heard about DNA – it’s the blueprint for all living things. Well, RNA is like DNA’s cousin. If DNA is the recipe book of our cells, RNA is the chef who reads the recipes and helps make things happen. RNA turns the information in our DNA into action, helping to make proteins that our bodies need to function.

By studying RNA, scientists can understand what's going on in our cells at any given time. It's like listening to the chatter in a busy kitchen. The chefs (or RNAs) are talking about the dishes they're making, how fast they're cooking, and which ingredients they're using. By listening to this chatter, we can learn a lot about the health and function of the kitchen, or in our case, the cell.

"RNA-Seq" is short for "RNA sequencing." It's a technique that lets scientists take a snapshot of all the RNA present in a cell at a particular moment. Imagine you could hear every conversation in a room all at once and then write it all down to analyze later. That's sort of what RNA-Seq does, but for our cells.

1. Collection: Scientists take a sample from a living organism, like a piece of plant, a drop of blood, or a swab from inside your cheek.

2. Extraction: They extract all the RNA from this sample.

3. Reading the RNA: Using super cool machines, they "read" or "sequence" the RNA, turning it into data that can be analyzed on a computer.

4. Analysis: Scientists use computer programs to sort through this massive amount of data. They look for patterns, changes, or anything unusual that might tell them more about the cell's health or function.

Imagine you're trying to solve a mystery in a big city, and you have the power to listen to everyone's conversations at the same time. By doing so, you can find clues, understand what's happening, and maybe even prevent something bad from happening. That's the power of RNA-Seq for scientists. They can learn about diseases, find new treatments, and understand more about the mysteries of life.

The world inside our cells is bustling with activity, and RNA-Seq is one of the tools that help us peek inside. It's like a super-microphone that listens to the life of our cells. So, the next time you hear about a breakthrough in medicine or biology, remember: it might have started with a tiny piece of RNA and a scientist curious enough to listen.

TLDR Science: RNA-Seq Analysis: The Fascinating World Inside Our Cells

This week's article is a continuation of our Guest Article series! Check out Aaitijhya's article on a walk through of the cosmological idea of time.

Time. A concept that has driven the whole world and the economic, social, political, financial, and many more frameworks which support the corporate sector since periods immemorial. Regarded by many as one of the most valuable resources for human beings, the idea of time in layman’s language is trifling and quite simple to grasp, but viewed at a cosmological level, time seems to have more to it than just a measure of day and night, dates, months and years. 

In our day-to-day lives, we always seem to run out of adequate time to finish assignments, fulfill deadlines, prepare presentations, and other corporate responsibilities, but what if we could go back in time? The idea of ‘going back in time’ may sound absurd and apt only for science fiction to many, but what if there were such parameters within our control, or at least within our knowledge, which could help us to reverse time? Well, cosmology has an answer.

In cosmology, time is not only treated as a simple measurable quantity like mass but as a different dimension of its own, with a particular direction of flow concerning an initial starting at t=0. Treating time as a dimension, there are possibilities of it being represented as positive, negative, and imaginary to enable the functionality of the laws of physics, as they do not distinguish between the past and the future.

The laws of physics remain unchanged under the combination of operations known as C, P and T. C refers to the interchanging of particles into antiparticles, and P means taking the mirror image i.e. considering the lateral images with the left and right swapping each other and T refers to changing the direction of motion of all particles. The laws of physics perform the same functions under the operations C and P as well as C, P, and T, thus, they must also function in an unchanged manner under the operation T. Yet, a big difference is evident between the forward and backward direction of time in ordinary life. If a tap is turned on, and the downward flow of water is recorded and then run by reversing the tape, it would be seen that the continuous flow gradually becomes thinner and thinner and becomes reduced to drops, which appear to move back into the tap’s mouth. If this tape is viewed by a person, he would say that it is in reverse as things do not ordinarily occur this way.

The reason why the dropped water into the sink does not return to the tap is given by the second law of thermodynamics, which states that entropy on creases with time. The water in the tap goes from an ordered state in the tap to an unordered state in the sink gradually with time. It is this change in entropy that gives time a direction of flow and is thus called, an arrow of time. There exist at least 3 arrows of time. First, the thermodynamic arrow of time, which is the direction in which the entropy increases. Second, is the psychological arrow, which is the direction in which we consider time to flow, in which we remember the past but not the future. Third is the cosmological arrow, in which direction the universe is expanding rather than contracting.

The second law of thermodynamics is based on the fact that there are many more unordered situations than ordered ones. If a system starts in a highly ordered condition, it would evolve according to the laws of physics and would have a high probability to acquire a condition of disorder, simply because there are a far greater number of unordered states. Thus, this thermodynamic arrow of time points in a direction where disorder increases.

To describe the idea of the psychological arrow, Dr. Stephen Hawking used the analogy of computer memory with the human brain, in his book The Theory of Everything. He states that computer memory has 2 states – a one and a zero, before the recording of a data item in the memory, it is in a disordered state of ones and zeroes, with equal probabilities for each. After the recording, it would be in one of the states i.e., in order. But, in doing so, an amount of energy is also released into the external environment, this released energy serves to increase the entropy of the universe. This entropy due to the release of heat is found to be greater than the ordered condition produced by the storage of data in the system and so, the overall disorder in the system increases. Thus, a conclusion is drawn that the psychological direction of the arrow is determined by the thermodynamic arrow.

The cosmological arrow’s direction has been debated by many scientists. According to the general theory of relativity, the universe must have started as a singularity of infinite density. Such a condition may imply that it is following the other arrows and in its contracting phase, would likely move from a condition of high to low entropy. This would lead to all kinds of science fiction scenarios, for those who survived the expanding phase of the universe. It is a concept with a debatable scope and feasibility. Dr. Stephen Hawking tested the feasibility of the idea through their no-boundary theory of the universe proposed by him. His presumptions about the boundaries of the universe were found to be not by the cosmological arrow of time. Realizing his mistake, Hawking withdrew the theory, accepting the loopholes present in it. Another idea of the cosmological arrow of time can be gained by considering an astronaut to be moving towards the event horizon of a black hole and another in a spacecraft orbiting it. The astronaut in the spacecraft receives signals at intervals of 1 second each. The signals traveling at the speed of light would gradually slow down and the intervals would increase and the final signal before entering the event horizon would never reach the craft as it would be absorbed by the gravity of the black hole. It is tough to wrap this idea around one’s mind with ease and is still difficult to uncover for scientists and laymen alike.

Thus, I hope this writing gives a wider idea of the undiscovered ambiguity of the rather easy concept of time and provides a slightly vague but well-researched answer to the question about the reversal of time and the viewing of the past. Till the universe starts contracting and scientists uncover more of the surprises time has in store, we still have to rush before deadlines.

TL;DR Guest Article: The Ambiguity of Time

In today's ever-evolving world of science, one field stands at the crossroads of biology and computer science, promising exciting discoveries and breakthroughs. Bioinformatics and genomic data analysis are captivating domains that offer an intriguing glimpse into the fusion of technology and life sciences. Check out the article this week to learn more!

In today's ever-evolving world of science, one field stands at the crossroads of biology and computer science, promising exciting discoveries and breakthroughs. Bioinformatics and genomic data analysis are captivating domains that offer an intriguing glimpse into the fusion of technology and life sciences. 

Unveiling the Genomic Universe: What is Bioinformatics?

Bioinformatics is a field that combines biology, computer science, and mathematics to uncover hidden insights within the vast sea of genetic information. Just like how detectives use clues to solve mysteries, bioinformaticians utilise computer algorithms and tools to decipher the secrets encoded within DNA.You might have learned about DNA's double helix structure and its role in inheritance. Bioinformatics takes this knowledge to the next level by extracting meaningful patterns and associations from immense datasets.

Cracking the Genetic Code: Genomic Data Analysis:

Imagine having billions of puzzle pieces and needing to arrange them into a coherent picture. Genomic data analysis is the process of sorting, interpreting, and making sense of these puzzle pieces, known as DNA sequences. High-throughput sequencing technologies have revolutionised our ability to sequence DNA rapidly and inexpensively. This flood of genetic data poses a challenge—how can we analyse it all? Here, bioinformatics steps in, providing the tools to organise and analyse these sequences, revealing insights into everything from human evolution to disease susceptibility.

Applications in the Real World: From Medicine to Conservation

Bioinformatics isn't just a theoretical concept—it has practical applications that impact our lives. In the realm of medicine, it plays a vital role in understanding genetic disorders and developing personalised treatments. By comparing an individual's DNA with reference genomes, scientists can identify genetic mutations that may lead to diseases. This knowledge empowers doctors to tailor treatments to each patient's unique genetic makeup.

Moreover, bioinformatics aids in conserving biodiversity. By analysing the DNA of various species, scientists can understand their genetic diversity, population structure, and adaptability. This information guides conservation efforts to protect endangered species and maintain the delicate balance of ecosystems.

Tools of the Trade: Algorithms and Databases

At the heart of bioinformatics are algorithms—complex mathematical instructions that guide computers in solving problems. Pairwise sequence alignment algorithms, for instance, allow scientists to compare DNA sequences and identify similarities or differences. Additionally, databases like GenBank and UniProt provide a treasure trove of genetic information, accessible to researchers worldwide.

If the world of bioinformatics has ignited your curiosity, there are steps you can take to explore this fascinating domain even further:

1.Learn the Basics: Start by understanding the fundamentals of genetics and computer science. Building a strong foundation will help you grasp the complexities of bioinformatics.

2.Programming Skills: Familiarise yourself with programming languages like Python or R. These are essential tools for creating algorithms and analysing data.

3.Online Courses: Many online platforms offer introductory courses in bioinformatics. These can help you get hands-on experience with real-world datasets and analysis tools.

4.Experiment with Tools: Explore software tools like BLAST for sequence comparison or tools for constructing phylogenetic trees. These hands-on experiences can enhance your understanding.

5.Stay Curious: Bioinformatics is a rapidly evolving field. Stay updated with the latest research and developments by reading scientific articles and attending webinars.

In conclusion, bioinformatics and genomic data analysis present an exciting intersection of biology and computer science. They empower us to uncover genetic mysteries, advance medical science, and contribute to the preservation of our natural world. As high schoolers, you have the opportunity to embark on a journey of exploration that could shape the future of scientific discovery. So, let your curiosity guide you as you venture into the captivating world of bioinformatics.

TLDR: Exploring the Frontier of Science: Bioinformatics and Genomic Data Analysis

Have you ever wondered why some of us are unaffected by springtime pollen while others find themselves sneezing?  Or why not everyone can enjoy a good peanut butter and jelly sandwich without having a reaction?  What really causes these allergies, and why do they vary among different people? Find out more in this week's article!

Have you ever wondered why some of us are unaffected by springtime pollen while others find themselves sneezing?  Or why not everyone can enjoy a good peanut butter and jelly sandwich without having a reaction?  What really causes these allergies, and why do they vary among different people? 

Put simply, an allergy is a condition where your immune system reacts to a foreign substance thinking it is dangerous.  When you are exposed to an allergen (pollen, pet dander, milk, you name it), the body produces a large number of antibodies that cause some cells to release various chemicals.  Histamines in particular are what cause the various symptoms we have come to associate with allergies.  For a more detailed explanation, refer to the picture below:

Allergies to different substances can cause vastly different symptoms throughout the body, from the nasal passages to the skin.  These symptoms can be mild or severe, sometimes even causing anaphylaxis, a deadly reaction that puts the body in a state of shock; therefore, it is important to be cautious and pay attention to whether you may be near a potential allergen.  

Below is a table with common allergens and what symptoms may be associated with them; this can help you identify whether you might be allergic to something, but remember that a doctor’s confirmation is always necessary.  Allergies marked with a (*) can cause anaphylaxis.

Allergies are still a relatively mysterious concept, and we do not exactly know why some people are more susceptible to react when in contact with certain substances.  Allergies usually develop during childhood and continue to be present throughout one’s lifetime, though some allergies can subside as time goes on.  Some adults also find themselves having their first allergic reactions later in life, usually due to a lack of exposure during their earlier years.

There are numerous environmental and genetic factors that play into whether or not you will be allergic to a certain substance.  If your family has a history of being allergic to pet dander, for example, you are more likely to be allergic to it as well.  However, we cannot predict the onset of allergies simply by looking at genetics; it is much more complicated than that.  

 Allergies are commonplace in our daily lives, with the simplest of substances being able to trigger complex bodily reactions; these conditions are rooted in our immune system trying to fight off potentially harmful material.  It is important to be cautious when around known allergens to prevent any adverse reactions.  However, with new medical advancements, it is becoming much easier to live a normal lifestyle, even with the symptoms that accompany allergies.

Here is a great video about allergies if you want to learn more!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sM3FDsMAMdc

https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/allergies/symptoms-causes/syc-20351497 

https://www.carolinaasthma.com/blog/what-causes-a-person-to-develop-allergies/#:~:text=Can%20You%20Develop%20Allergies%20Later,changes%20in%20the%20immune%20system. 

https://img.freepik.com/free-vector/allergy-concept-with-symptoms-treatment-common-allergens-symbols-cartoon_1284-55530.jpg?w=2000 

https://stackset-allergynz-website-d95fbab4-800c-4-bucket-8ayg9lmdqvqj.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/public/How-allergies-develop-low__ResizedImageWzY1MCw1MjFd.jpg 

After a long day of school, extracurriculars, and hanging out with friends, there is one thing that we all look forward to at the end: a good night’s rest. What causes all of these differences in our sleep and energy patterns, and what makes us tired as the sky turns darker?  Check out this week's article to learn more about the force that controls our sleep!

After a long day of school, extracurriculars, and hanging out with friends, there is one thing that we all look forward to at the end: a good night’s rest.  Some of us doze off as soon as our head hits the pillow, but for others, it takes much longer to fall asleep.  Some of us are fresher in the morning, while others are their most productive selves late at night!  What causes all of these differences in our sleep and energy patterns, and what makes us tired as the sky turns darker?  The answer lies in what's called a circadian rhythm.

Let’s just focus on the terminology here: a circadian rhythm doesn’t always have to relate to sleep!  This term is derived from the Latin phrase circa diem, which means about a day.  In other words, circadian rhythms are processes within organisms that operate on a 24-hour cycle. These rhythms are not just limited to humans; for example, animals that are nocturnal know not to go out during daylight (when they are most susceptible to predators) because of their 24-hour circadian rhythm.

From a human standpoint, circadian rhythms regulate many of the processes that occur within the body, from producing specific proteins during mealtimes to releasing hormones from the endocrine system on a 24-hour rotation. However, circadian rhythms are most widely discussed in terms of the sleep-wake cycle.

To understand how circadian rhythms function, we have to take a closer look into the brain!  The hypothalamus is a small part of the brain that essentially acts as the link between the nervous system and the endocrine system in the human body.  Within the hypothalamus is a collection of nerve cells known as the suprachiasmatic nucleus (more commonly known as SCN).  The SCN acts as a “biological clock” of sorts that controls the timing of different activities throughout the body.  Now, the interesting thing about the SCN is that it is closely connected to the optic nerve (check out my last article on the SciTeens website to learn more)!  As a result of this connection, the SCN is sensitive to light picked up by the optic nerve, causing the sleep-wake cycle to operate on a 24-hour basis just like the cycle of night and day!  

Light is the most significant external factor that affects circadian rhythms, but other elements like temperature and overexertion through physical activity can also have a big impact.

Now, let’s return to our discussion of the circadian rhythm’s impact on sleep.  When it gets dark during the night, the SCN (our internal clock) starts to produce melatonin, the hormone that helps us sleep.  Keep in mind that since the SCN is able to do this because of its connection to the endocrine system that controls the production of hormones, as mentioned earlier.  Throughout the night, the SCN also continues to transmit signals that keep us asleep.

As daylight breaks, the SCN takes those light cues from the optic nerve and sends signals to raise body temperature, delay melatonin production, increase heart rate, and perform other actions that help the body become active and alert.  By following this pattern of taking in light or dark and sending specific signals to initiate processes throughout the body, our sleep-wake cycle is able to coordinate itself to day and night.  We can thank our circadian rhythm for letting us rest and optimizing our performance for the next day!

Refer to the picture below to get a better understanding of how our circadian rhythm controls our body at different times of the day.

The time when the human body craves sleep the most is from 2 AM to 4 AM; however, there is also a period of time from 2 PM to 3 PM when the body might need some additional rest in accordance with its circadian rhythm.  This is why mid-day naps are completely normal (and even encouraged by many experts): they help to maximize productivity throughout the day and boost health in the long run.

Circadian rhythms can be thrown off for a multitude of reasons, from jet lag to working night shifts.  It is important to maintain a healthy circadian rhythm to prevent conditions like insomnia and other sleep or mental health disorders.  Some abnormal circadian rhythms can be the result of genetics, as well.  However, with a proper night routine, good sleeping habits, and possibly medical intervention, we have the ability to “reset” our circadian rhythms and keep them healthy.

Here is a great video about sleep and circadian rhythm if you want to learn more!

Circadian Rhythm and Your Brain's Clock

The cycle of sleeping and waking up is made possible by our body’s circadian rhythms.  While circadian rhythms can vary from person to person, they must remain stable in order to regulate the timings of our bodily processes on a daily basis!

https://www.sleepfoundation.org/circadian-rhythm 

https://nigms.nih.gov/education/fact-sheets/Pages/circadian-rhythms.aspx 

https://d2jx2rerrg6sh3.cloudfront.net/image-handler/picture/2021/2/shutterstock_1742387510.jpg 

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSuprachiasmatic_nucleus&psig=AOvVaw1pismPSlTl7qn2RnYVqkwT&ust=1691355137065000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBAQjRxqFwoTCPCV24KzxoADFQAAAAAdAAAAABAR 

TL;DR Science: Sleep and Circadian Rhythm

Remote patient monitoring is an innovative approach in healthcare that utilizes advancements in information technology to gather patient data outside of the conventional health care environment. It is also referred to as remote patient management, remote health monitoring, or remote physiologic monitoring. Check out this week's article to learn more about its software and benefits!

Remote patient monitoring is an innovative approach in healthcare that utilizes advancements in information technology to gather patient data outside of the conventional health care environment. It is also referred to as remote patient management, remote health monitoring, or remote physiologic monitoring.

Health information can be obtained in two ways for remote patient monitoring: either through manual collection and entry into a system, or through the use of biosensors, fitness trackers, and similar wellness devices that automatically or consistently gather relevant health data. Once collected, this data is securely transmitted to healthcare providers situated in different locations, allowing them to access, assess, and intervene in real-time. Providers may focus on measuring various indicators such as heart rate, vital signs, sleep patterns, and glucose levels, enabling them to provide ongoing care to their patients from a remote setting.

What is the software needed to ensure the success of it?

To ensure the success of remote patient monitoring, several software components are needed. These software elements work together to enable effective data collection, transmission, storage, analysis, and communication between patients and healthcare providers.

Patient monitoring applications: It collects health data from sensors or wearable devices, provides patient instructions, and transmits the data securely to health care providers.

Electronic Health Record system(EHR): This system is crucial for storing and managing patient health information. It allows healthcare providers to access and review patient data, track trends over time, and make informed decisions based on the information provided by the remote monitoring system.

Data analytics and reporting tools: These tools help healthcare providers analyze the collected patient data, identify trends, and generate reports. Data analytics can provide valuable insights for early detection of potential health issues, tracking progress, and making data-driven decisions for personalized patient care.

What are the benefits of remote patient monitoring?

RPM offers several benefits for both patients and healthcare providers:

Improved access to care: RPM enables patients to receive care regardless of their geographical location.

Timely intervention and early detection: Continuous monitoring of patient data through RPM enables healthcare providers to detect any changes or abnormalities promptly. Early identification of potential health issues allows for timely intervention, preventing complications and reducing hospital readmissions.

Cost savings and resource optimization: By reducing the need for hospital visits and preventing complications, RPM can lower healthcare costs for both patients and providers. It optimizes the utilization of healthcare resources, minimizes unnecessary hospitalizations, and allows for efficient allocation of medical staff and resources.

While remote patient monitoring (RPM) offers many benefits and can be a valuable addition to healthcare, it typically does not provide a full alternative to in-clinic visits. RPM is designed to complement traditional healthcare and enhance patient care, but there are certain aspects of in-person visits that cannot be fully replicated through remote monitoring alone. Here are some factors to consider such as physical examinations, complex tests, emergencies and of course the patient comfort.

Remote patient monitoring aims at improving patient care through digitally transmitted health- related data. This allows early detection of disease decompensation and intervention, patient education and improves patient- physician relationship. Despite its relevance, it can not be an alternative to in person clinical reviews.

TL;DR Science: The Future of Remote Patient Monitoring (RPM):

Vision forms the basis for our everyday lives; after all, almost everything we do – from studying to taking walks on the beach – depends on our ability to see.  We even “eat with our eyes” before tasting our favorite foods!  How is it that we are able to see the world around us, and where does the brain come into play?  What conditions can hinder that ability?  Let’s learn all that and more by exploring one of the most integral parts of the visual system: the optic nerve.

To understand how we are able to see our surroundings with such precision, we have to go on a journey from the front of the eye all the way to the brain.  Refer to the picture below to get a better understanding of the anatomy discussed:

We are able to see objects in front of us because of the light that reflects off those objects.  This light enters through the cornea, the front-most part of the eye.  The light bends and continues through the pupil, which changes in size depending on the light’s intensity.

The light continues on to the lens, the area behind the pupil that changes its shape accordingly and bends light a second time to provide for maximum visual clarity.  Because the initial light has been bent twice at this point, the resulting image would be upside down and backwards – if not for the optic nerve!  (We’ll touch on this later.)

The light travels to the back of the eye through the vitreous (a clear, gel-like substance) and eventually reaches the retina.  The retina is especially important because it is lined with special nerves called photoreceptors that convert light into electrical impulses; these photoreceptors are called rods and cones, and they play an important role in visualizing brightness and color.  The light is then focused on a specific part of the retina called the focal point.

Note: Though the light is spread throughout the retina, the goal is to get the light focused exactly on the focal point; part of the reason why some people are either near-sighted or far-sighted is because the shape and size of their eye causes the light to be focused slightly off the focal point.

Now is where the magic of vision really comes into play.  The electrical impulses stored in the retinal nerves start to travel through the optic nerve at the back of the eye (look at the picture above).  These impulses eventually reach the occipital lobe of the brain.  Because of this unique connection to the brain, the optic nerve is generally classified as part of the body’s central nervous system (CNS).

The occipital lobe is the part of the brain that processes all of this electrical stimuli and conveys it in a way that is understandable, allowing us to perceive everything from distance to color to movement.  The upside down, reversed image from before is converted to the proper orientation, and it is here that our surroundings start to make visual sense!  The occipital lobe even has properties that allow it to store and recognize familiar images, including objects and faces of people you’ve met before!

Of course, there are several eye conditions that can disrupt this intricate process.  

Glaucoma, for example, is the result of increasing eye pressure due to excess fluids in the eye; this can damage the optic nerve and affect the transmission of electrical impulses to the brain.  This usually occurs in older adults, but 16-year-olds can sometimes have their pressures taken during their annual eye check-ups, just in case.

Congenital eye disorders that affect the size and/or effectiveness of the optic nerve are not uncommon among children, as well.  However, it is important to note that the size of the optic nerve is different among different backgrounds, ethnicities, and hereditary lines.  For example, having a large optic nerve by birth is not a cause for concern; it’s oftentimes completely normal!  However, drastic changes or gradual abnormalities are often monitored by eye specialists, as prevention is always better than cure!

The eye is an incredibly complex organ that allows us to experience the world around us.  It’s amazing how light is processed in so many different ways from the cornea all the way to the brain.  There are so many unique structures within the scope of the eye itself, but we must give credit to the optic nerve that serves as a transition point to the brain and “corrects” our perception of our surroundings.  

Here is a brief yet informative video about the optic nerve if you want to learn more!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ymImMzFS1xo 

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/22261-optic-nerve 

https://www.optometrists.org/general-practice-optometry/guide-to-eye-health/how-does-the-eye-work/ 

https://media.istockphoto.com/id/922038408/vector/how-eye-work-medical-illustration-eye-brain-diagram-eye-structure-and-connection-with-brains.jpg?s=612x612&w=0&k=20&c=j2jkKrJenR4FzLUY4XDbHPDRUDN_Y2lJkt2vfsEmNUk=

TL;DR Science: Vision and the Optic Nerve

This week's article is a continuation of our Probability series!

A  two-way table, expresses data based on two variables which often form categories. The coincidence of these two categories forms a conditional event.

The following table includes the coincidence of two categories: grade level (9th, 10th, 11th, or 12th grade) and pet preference (dog, cat, bird)

A survey was taken at your high school from the student population, which asked them about pet preferences. The two way table shows the findings. 

Referring to the table, a conditional event in this case could be P(Prefers Dogs given is in 9th grade) or P(Dog | 9th grader). That means, from a pool of freshmen, what is the probability that one is likely to prefer dogs? 

We can determine that the probability of P(Dog | 9th grader) is 1021 by referring to the table using the following system:

Refer to the specific row of 9th graders, since we are taking from a pool of 9th graders




Refer to the specific cell which gives the number of 9th graders who prefer dogs. 

Since the probability of an event is defined by: 

probability = (number of possible successful outcomes)/(number of possible outcomes)

Since the number of possible successes is 10 (9th grade ⋂ Prefers Dogs) (refers to orange highlighted number) and the number of possible outcomes is 21 (9th grade)(refers to green highlighted number), P(Dog | Freshman) = 10/21. 

This examples leads us to the law of conditional probabilities: 

“The probability of event A given event B is equal to the probability of event A and B divided by the probability of event B”.


This law is evidenced in the formula for dependent events: P(A ∩ B) =P(A) • P(B|A) (if you recall from the last article) or P(A ∩ B) =P(B) • P(A|B) (if you merely switch up the letters). Let’s take P(A ∩ B) =P(B) • P(A|B) for the sake of simplicity. If you divide both sides by P(B), you get the rule of P(A|B) from above. 

We can also demonstrate the use of this formula through the two way table example above. 

From the rule above, we can prove that P(Dog | 9th grader) =  1021  by dividing P(Dog ∩ 9th grader) by P(9th grade). Let me demonstrate: 

P(Dog | 9th grader) = P(Dog ∩ 9th grader)/P(9th grader) = (10/88*)/(21/88**)(refer to table)

Highlighted in orange (also starred *) is P(Dog ∩ 9th grader), while what is highlighted in green (also starred **) is P(9th grader) both are in terms of the total number of students, which is 88. So, the probability that a student prefers a dog AND is a 9th grader is 10 students out of 88 in total while the probability that a student is 9th grader is 21/88.

(10/88*)/(21/88**) = (10/88)*(88/21) (separate into two fractions - keep, change flip) 

So, P(A | B) = P(A ∩ B)/P(B) as evidenced above. An extension of this law can be taken from the law of dependent events: P(A ∩ B) =P(A) • P(B|A) in order to get rid of the P(A ∩ B) and break down the the formula all the way to events A, B, and B|A. This is called “Bayes’ Theorem”: 

Unfortunately, we don’t have time left in this story to discuss Bayes’ Theorem, but if you are interested here is some further reading: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/bayes-theorem.asp  

TL;DR Science: Exploration of Probability, Part 3

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing the field of healthcare, bringing forth a new era of personalized medicine, improved diagnostics, and enhanced patient care. With its ability to analyze vast amounts of data, identify patterns, and make intelligent predictions, AI is transforming the way healthcare professionals diagnose diseases, develop treatment plans, and manage patient outcomes. Find out more in this week's article!

 Intelligence is the capacity to solve problems, learn, and, make decisions effectively. It exists in different forms and levels among humans, animals, and even machines. From here comes “Artificial Intelligence” which as John McCarthy stated in one of his research papers: “

It is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs. It is related to the similar task of using computers to understand human intelligence”.

The process of evaluating medical disorders and diseases by analyzing the symptoms, medical history and blood work is known as diagnosing which indeed is an art that requires highly professional skills by well-prepared and trained doctors and specialists. This process may include analyzing MRIs CT scans etc. The aim of this process is to tailor a suitable treatment for patients.

With the recent AI revolution, medical diagnostics could be improved to revolutionize the field of medical diagnostics.

According to a new study, artificial intelligence algorithms may be the key to identifying who is at the most risk of developing one of the most notoriously difficult cancers to diagnose early: pancreatic cancer.

 In a study published in the peer-reviewed journal Nature Medicine, researchers found that with the help of AI, they were able to identify those most at risk for developing pancreatic cancer around three years before diagnosis purely by using the patient’s medical records. It could be a game-changer in battling this type of cancer, which is fast-growing and hard to detect, researchers say.

AI can revolutionize medical imaging by automating the analysis of radiological images, such as X-rays, CT scans, and MRIs. Deep learning algorithms can quickly and accurately detect abnormalities, tumours, and other subtle changes that may indicate diseases, assisting radiologists in making more precise diagnoses.

In addition to that,Quantum computers have significantly more processing power than classical computers, and this could allow quantum AI algorithms to analyze vast amounts of medical data in real time, leading to more accurate and efficient diagnoses. By using AI algorithms to analyze vast amounts of medical data and identify patterns and relationships, general AI for medical diagnostics can transform the field of medicine, leading to improved patient outcomes and a more efficient and effective healthcare system.

  By increasing precision, effectiveness, and patient outcomes, the ongoing AI diagnosis revolution has the potential to completely change the healthcare industry. It also comes with a number of ethical difficulties, though. As AI systems depend on a huge amount of individual health data, protecting patient privacy and data security is a major challenge. Furthermore, concerns regarding justice and accountability are raised by the possibility of bias in algorithms and the lack of transparency in their decision-making procedures. Finding the ideal balance between AI's capabilities and human expertise becomes essential since relying too much on AI systems without adequate human monitoring might result in mistakes and possible patient harm. To fully utilize AI in diagnosis while preserving patient rights, it is essential to address these ethical issues.

The revolution of AI in diagnosis has a promising potential to improve medical diagnostics in regard to efficiency, accuracy and patient outcomes. However, it also brings along a host of ethical challenges that need to be addressed.

TL;DR Science: Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare

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